Role of amygdala in the experience of fear

Role of amygdala in the experience of fear The amygdalae (from the Greek for almond) are two groups of almond-shaped nuclei located deep within the medial temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans, (see Fig 1 below). Research has shown that the amygdalae perform a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions, and are considered to be part of the limbic system. [pic] Fig 1: Location of Amygdala. (Image from: imemat.blogspot.com) The regions described as amygdalae are a combination of several nuclei with distinct functions. Among these nuclei are the basolateral complex, the cortical nucleus and the centromedial nucleus, (see Fig 2 below). The basolateral complex can be further subdivided into the lateral, the basal and the accessory basal nuclei. Anatomically, the amygdala and more particularly, its centromedial nucleus, may be considered as a part of the basal ganglia. The amygdala sends impulses to various parts of the brain, for example, to the hypothalamus to activate the symp athetic nervous system; to the thalamic reticular nucleus to increase reflex movement; and to the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus for the activation of various neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine. The cortical nucleus is involved in the sense of smell and pheromone- processing. It receives input from the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex. The lateral amygdalae, which send impulses to the rest of the basolateral complexes and to the centromedial nuclei, receive input from the sensory systems. The centromedial nuclei are the main outputs for the basolateral complexes, and are involved in emotional arousal in rats and cats. [pic] Fig 2: Nuclei of the rat amygdaloid complex. (ABmc = accessory basal magnocellular subdivision; ABpc = accessory basal parvicellular subdivision; Bpc = basal nucleus magnocellular subdivision; e.c. = external capsule; Ladl = lateral amygdala medial subdivision; Lam = lateral amygdala medial subdivision; Lavl = lateral amygdala v entrolateral subdivision; Mcd = medial amygdala dorsal subdivision; Mcv = medial amygdala ventral subdivision; Mr = medial amygdala rostral subdivision; Pir = piriform cortex; s.t. = stria terminalis). (Image from: Physiol Rev 83: 805) The amygdala filters sensory information and acts as a sort of interpretation channel. The basolateral amygdala receives sensory information from the thalamus and cortex and then forwards a signal to the appropriate target areas (see Figure 3 below). It is also known as the amygdala proper, and the several areas of the brain that it targets are part of a broader network that serves much more specialized functions. Because the basolateral amygdala is critical for emotion, a better understanding of the chemicals within these brain circuits should lead to improved pharmacological treatments for emotional dysfunction in psychiatric disorders. [pic] Fig 3: The basolateral amygdala. (Image from: Current Biology, Vol.10, (4)) Within most of these disorders i s a common symptom in that the patient often says I didnt think, I just reacted. Straker, D. (2006) believes they may be exactly right. All sensory data, with the exception of the sense of smell, is sent by the body first to the thalamus which then forwards it to both the relevant part of the cortex and to the amygdala. The information is sent out over two parallel pathways: the thalamo- amygdala pathway (the short route) and the thalamo-cortico-amygdala pathway (the long route). The short route transmits a quick estimated representation of the situation, in which no cognition is involved. This pathway activates the amygdala which, through its central nucleus, generates emotional responses before the mind can form a complete representation of the stimulus. The amygdala does a quick threat assessment by comparing the sensory data received with already stored fear responses. If any of these are triggered, then the amygdala floods the cortex with chemicals to stop it taking over. The r esult is action without conscious thought. (See Fig 4 below). Subsequently, the information that has travelled via the long route and been processed in the cortex reaches the amygdala and tells it whether or not the stimulus represents a real threat. Should a real threat be presented the amygdala will then activate the efferent structures responsible for physical manifestations of fear, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure, sweaty hands, dry mouth, and tense muscles. The parallel operation of our explicit (hippocampal) and implicit (amygdalic) memory systems explains why we do not remember traumas experienced very early in our lives. At that age, the hippocampus is still immature, while the amygdala is already able to record unconscious memories. Early childhood traumas can disturb the mental and behavioural functions of adults by mechanisms that they cannot access consciously. In complex vertebrates, including humans, the amygdalae perform primary roles in the formation and storage of memories associated with emotional events. Amunts et al (2005) indicate that, during fear conditioning, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the lateral nuclei, where they form associations with memories of that particular stimuli. These associations between stimuli and the aversion may be mediated by long-term potentiation, a lingering potential for affected synapses to react more readily. Memories of emotional experiences that become imprinted in the reactions of synapses in the lateral nuclei produce fear behaviour through their connections with both the amygdalaes central nucleus and the bed nuclei of stria terminalis (BNST). These central nuclei are involved in the production of many typical fear responses, including freezing (immobility), tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), increased respiration, and stress-hormone release. Damage to the amygdalae impairs both the attainment and the expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning, which is a form of classical conditioning of emotional responses.    [pic]Fig 4: The Amygdala Bypass System. (Image from: www.changingminds.org) Advances in neuroimaging technology such as fMRI, have allowed neuroscientists to show just how much of a role the amygdala plays in many psychological disorders. Donegan et al. (2003) studied patients with Borderline personality disorder who showed significantly greater left amygdala activity than the normal control subjects. Some of these borderline patients even had difficulties classifying neutral faces or classed them as being threatening. In support of these findings, in 2006, researchers at Monash University, Australia, observed increased levels of activity in the amygdala when patients with social phobia were shown images of threatening faces or when they were confronted with frightening situations. These activity levels in the amygdala were in direct correlation with the severity levels of the social phobia. Similarly, depressed patients showed more activity in the left amygdala when interpretin g emotions for all faces, and especially for fearful faces, although this hyperactivity was normalized when patients were prescribed antidepressants. Cultural studies such as Williams et al (2006) showed that normal subjects exposed to images of frightened faces or faces of people from another race will show increased activity of the amygdala, even if that exposure is subliminal. However, according to Tsuchiya et al (2009), the amygdala is not necessary for the processing of fear-related stimuli, since people with bilateral damage show rapid reactions to fearful faces. Early research on primates has also provided explanations for the functions of the amygdala in relation to emotional disorders. An early study by Brown Shafer (1888) observed rhesus monkeys with a lesioned temporal cortex (including the amygdala) and found that they suffered from significant social and emotional deficits. Kluver Bucy (1939) later expanded upon this observation by showing that large lesions to the an terior temporal lobe produced not only fearlessness, but also severe emotional disturbances including increased sexual behaviour and a propensity to place objects in their mouths. Some monkeys also displayed an inability to recognize familiar objects and would approach both animate and inanimate objects indiscriminately, while also exhibiting fearlessness towards the researchers. This behavioural disorder was later named Klà ¼ver-Bucy syndrome. However, their study can be criticised in that these lesions were so large and crude when compared to todays techniques, that researchers werent exactly sure of the structures responsible for these significant changes in behaviour. Improved techniques, such as using the neurotoxin ibotenic acid to make more precise lesions are partly responsible for the more detailed understanding of the amygdale today. | | | |[pic] |   | Fig 5: Sensory data routes, the fear response and the amygdala. (Image from: http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/index_a.ht ml) Previous studies have examined activation of the amygdala in response to emotional facial stimuli, but these have been carried out in either the U.S. or Western Europe, although none of these explored cross-cultural differences. Although culture shapes several aspects of human emotional and social experience, including how fear is perceived and expressed to others, very little is known about how culture influences neural responses to fear stimuli. In response to this gap in the research, a study by Chiao et al (2008) found that the bilateral amygdalas response to fear faces is, in fact, modulated by culture. Using fMRI, they measured the amygdalas response to fear and non-fear faces in two distinct cultures, Native Japanese in Japan and Caucasians in the United States. Both culture groups showed greater activation in the amygdala to fear expressed by members of their own culture, (their in-group), than in any of the other emotional measures such as anger, happiness or neutrality . (See Fig 6 below). [pic] Fig 6: The amygdalas response to fearful facial expressions is culture- specific. (Image from: Chiao et al 2008). As mentioned earlier, sensory data, apart from the sense of smell, is sent by the body to the thalamus and then forwarded to both the cortex and the amygdala. In relation to this sense of smell, when faced with a threatening situation, many organisms, including insects, fish and mammals, release volatile pheromones, signalling the danger to other members of the same species. Nearly 70 years ago, Karl von Frisch (1941), described the alarm response in a species of small freshwater fish called the European minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus). Frisch, who was one of the founders of the scientific study of animal behaviour, demonstrated that when a minnow was eaten by a predator, a chemical released from its damaged skin would be reacted to by other minnows that were close by. They would at first dart about randomly, form a tight school and then retreat fro m the source of the chemical. Frisch called this substance schreckstoff, meaning scary stuff, and we now know that similar chemicals are used throughout the animal and plant kingdoms. A team of researchers from the University of Lausanne in Switzerland (Brechbuhl et al, 2008) have shown that mice detect alarm pheromones by means of a recently identified sensory system in the nose by examining a structure called the Grueneberg ganglion (GG), which in mammals is located on both sides in the tip of the nose, close to the openings of the nostrils. When the GG was first discovered by Hans Grueneberg in 1973, its anatomy was not known in such detail and so it was thought to be a non-sensory structure. It is only very recently that the olfactory system has come to be viewed as containing 3 distinct channels, each with a unique structure and function. The main channel is involved in detecting aromatic molecules; the second channel is called the vomeronasal system, and is an accessory olfact ory system which is now known to be involved in the detection of pheromones; the GG constitutes a third component of the olfactory pathway, one that was thought to be involved in mother-pup recognition and suckling behaviour, because it is present at the time of birth. The researchers sought to investigate the role of the GG in behaviour. Because of its location, the GG is easily accessible, so they were able to cut the axons of GG neurons in live mice (axotomy), thus preventing any signals from reaching the brain. But after numerous tests for nipple finding and other possible functions, the team actually found that the ganglion played a role in danger communication. [pic] Fig 7: Scanning electron microscope images of the mouse Grueneberg ganglion. Left: a cluster of neurons (GC) in a meshwork of fibroblasts (Fb) Right: and a higher magnification of a single GG neuron (green), with its axon (red) and thin ciliary process (blue). Scale bars: 20 microns (L) and 5 microns (R). (Image f rom: Brechbuhl et al, (2008)). 30 days after the axotomy, the researchers then compared how mice with and without their Grueneberg ganglia responded to alarm pheromones. According to Broillet, the contrast was very striking. Normal mice with the ganglia showed fear immediately by freezing while mice without the ganglia seemed to be unaffected and they carried on as before, apparently unaware of the danger signals that affected the normal mice. Although their sense of smell did not seem to be affected as they were able to sniff out cookies hidden in their cages as well as the normal mice. This study clearly shows that in mice the GG is involved in detecting alarm pheromones, rather than in mother-pup interactions, as was previously thought. It is able to perform this primitive function thanks to a specialized yet very basic structure as the GG consists simply of a small group of cells separated from the external environment by a water-permeable sheet of epithelial cells. Its location , far away from the main olfactory system, enables rapid detection of alarm pheromones. Such a mechanism is crucial an organisms survival rate, and the GG is found in every mammalian species examined so far, including humans. However, whether or not alarm pheromones affect, or even exist in humans, has been a subject for debate in the scientific community. Since pheromones are not detectable by the human sense of smell, scientists believe that pheromones are sensed by the vomeronasal organ (VNO), part of the olfactory system and located inside the mouth or nose. For many years, the existence of the VNO produced much speculation because it had only been found occasionally in adult humans, and when it was found, it was believed to be vestigial. However, Johnston et al, (1985) conducted a study in which the noses of 100 human adults were examined post-mortem and the VNO was found in the septums of 70% of those examined. Since then, much evidence has been gathered to support these findi ngs of a presence of the VNO in most adult humans, but many scientists still believe it to be a functionless organ that was inherited from some ancestor of humans. However, recent genetic research has shown the possibility of a receptor in the nose that could sense pheromones. When searching the human genome for genes that had similar sequences to those of rodent pheromone receptors, a team of researchers from The Rockefeller University in New York and the Yale University School of Medicine identified for the first time a candidate pheromone receptor gene in humans. The findings, reported in Nature Genetics, may shed new light on the molecular basis of social communication between humans, including the fear response. In conclusion, despite the saying, have no fear, to live without the ability to experience and recognise fear is to be deprived of a vital neural mechanism that enables appropriate social behaviour, and possibly even survival.

The Evil In Hamlet Essay examples -- claudius, queen gertrude

The Evil In Hamlet Throughout the play Hamlet, evil thoughts and actions can be seen. The characters Hamlet, King Claudius, and Queen Gertrude consistently are influenced by the forces of evil. Evil becomes the controlling factor of the play and causes the characters thoughts and actions to be blurred. Hamlet’s thoughts are constantly darkened by suicide and death. Hamlet can be seen as suicidal in one of his first soliloquies. â€Å"O, that this too too solid flesh would melt / Thaw and resolve itself into a dew, / Or that the Everlasting had not fixed / His canon 'gainst self-slaughter. O God. God† (Ham. 1. 2. 129-132). This shows Hamlet wishes his "flesh would melt" because his mother's actions have made the world completely corrupted. Hamlet also states that suicide or, "self-slaughter" is evil and a sin. Another example of Hamlets thoughts being consumed by evil and death can be seen in what may be his most famous soliloquy. Hamlets thoughts are so blackened by evil and death he wonders why everyone doesn’t commit suicide. â€Å"To be, or not to be: that is the question: / Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer / The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, / Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, / And by opposing end them? To die: to sleepâ €  (Ham. 3. 1. 56-60). This shows Hamlet clearly pondering why he should live in a world of troubles when he could just kill himself. Hamlets’ pondering of death comes to a pinnacle in the notorious graveyard scene when Hamlet holds up the skull of Yorick, a court jester Hamlet knew when he was little. â€Å"That skull had a tongue in it, and could sing once. How the knave jowls it to the ground, as if it were Cain's jaw-bone, that did the first murder! It might be the pate of a poli... ...evil of Claudius and herself. â€Å"Gertrude, do not drink. / I will, my lord; I pray you pardon me† (Ham. 5. 2. 257-258). Gertrude consumes the cup even though Claudius directly tells her not to. It is left ambiguous as to weather or not Gertrude knew the cup was poisoned or not. Gertrude may have been so possessed by the guilt of her evil she drank the poisoned cup knowingly in an attempt to try and save Hamlet. It is clear that evil is a driving force throughout the play. The thoughts and actions of the characters of Hamlet, King Claudius and Queen Gertrude are poisoned and corrupted by evil. The characters evil ultimately lead to all of their deaths. Works Cited Shakespeare, William. â€Å"The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark† Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing. Ed. Edgar V. Roberts. 9th Ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2009. Print

Game Theory Essay

Game theory emerged as a scholarly field of study in the first half of the 20th century. Since that time, it has significantly affected various academic disciplines, such as economics, political science and biology. Although the term â€Å"game theory† may suggest a certain frivolity, the concepts underlying it have many real-world applications and offer a structured and logical method of considering strategic situations. The parallels between competitive games and strategic business situations should be fairly obvious. Consider the game of chess. There are two players, each of whom makes moves in sequence. After observing the move made by the first player, the second player makes a counter move. Then the first player, having observed the first two moves, makes the third move and so on. Compare this to the business situation of gas stations competing for customers through strategic pricing. (The players in this case are station A and station B. ) Suppose, for instance, that station A starts by choosing a new pricing strategy. Given station A’s decision, station B decides how it will set its prices. Given station B’s response, station A can choose to revise its pricing strategy and so on. The objective of each gas station in this â€Å"game† is to maximise its own profit. For each to do so, it must be continually acting and reacting to its competitor in the market as well as anticipating competitive responses when making decisions. What does game theory have to offer? First, game theory provides a framework, or formal procedure, for analysing any competitive situation (or â€Å"game†). Specifically, it forces you to identify the players in a game (consumers, sellers, input providers, governments, foreign organisations, etc. , their possible actions and reactions to the actions of other players, and the payoffs or rewards implicit in the game. Game theory models reduce the world in which businesses operate from a highly complex one to one that is simpler but nevertheless retains some important characteristics of the original. By capturing and clarifying the most significant aspects of competition and interdependence, game theory models make it possible to break down a complex competitive situation into its key components and to analyse the complex dynamics between players. In order for game theory to be truly useful in analysing such complex situations, certain assumptions need to be made. The most significant assumption is that the players in a game are choosing their actions optimally; that is, they are choosing their actions in the hope of maximising their ultimate payoff and they assume that the other players are doing likewise. Without this assumption, game theory cannot successfully model real-world situations. Because game theory can realistically model business situations, it helps businesses to make optimal decisions and choose optimal actions. In other words, by â€Å"solving† a game, a business can identify its optimal actions (assuming, as always, that all the other players are also choosing their actions optimally). This is especially valuable because it helps companies choose the right business strategies when confronted with a complex strategic situation. In what types of business situations can game theory be applied? Click on the linkhere to find out. The nature of the solution(s) in game theory also motivates businesses to analyse how the structure of the game can be altered so that a different (and perhaps a more favourable) game can be played. Because of its systematic approach, game theory allows businesses to examine the consequences of actions that they may not have considered. It is worth noting here that many games involving business are different from games in other fields. For instance, in business, many players can win (and lose) simultaneously, which obviously is not the case with chess. Additionally, because of the interdependent nature of most business relationships, these games are not always ones of direct competition. Consider a game between manufacturer and supplier — both have incentives to do well, but each also has a vested interest in the success of the other. Furthermore, unlike some other games with fixed rules, the rules of business are continuously in flux. They may be formulated by law, by tradition or by accident. Often, however, players have an influence on how rules are decided. How does game theory differ from microeconomics? Because game theory can be used to model almost any economic situation, it might seem redundant to study both microeconomics and game theory. However, microeconomics tends to focus on cases in which there are many buyers and sellers or there is one seller (or buyer) and many buyers (or sellers). Yet here are many instances in which there are a few buyers or sellers. Markets in which more than one but still only a few firms compete are known as â€Å"oligopolies. † Oligopolists are acutely aware of their interdependence. Each firm’s decisions in the market depend on the specific assumptions it makes about how its rivals make pricing and output decisions. In addition, there are other situations in which there is one buyer and one seller. Microeconomics without game theory does not adequately address these matters. Consider a market in which the number of producers is small. In aircraft manufacturing, two firms, Boeing and Airbus, control 100 percent of the world market for commercial aircraft. Each firm recognises that its pricing and production decisions have important implications for its rival’s profitability. As a consequence, each firm attempts to guess which actions its rival will take. But each must also recognise that its rival will also be guessing as to what it will do. Clearly, such interactions are inadequately represented by classic microeconomic models, which assume that the firms are price takers. In some other markets, the number of buyers is small. For instance, the wholesale market for diamonds is dominated by a small group of global firms; therefore, diamond producers may find that implicit (or explicit) collusion between buyers makes it difficult for the diamond producers to exercise market power. Once again, classic microeconomic models may be missing a very important feature of actual markets. Click on each of the links below to read a few real-world examples in which game theory is applicable.

Gap Analysis Cordis medical device manufacturing company

Gap Analysis Cordis medical device manufacturing company Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Gap Analysis: Cordis medical device manufacturing company specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Altered documents: introduction Documentation is one of the factors, which indirectly contributes towards production of quality products. For an organization to manufacture quality products, precise and lucid documentation must be adhered to in the areas of manufacturing, procedure quality system elements as well as in specification and testing. Violations or failures however occur in documentation processes, thus leading to production of products of poor quality. Following such considerations and the importance of understanding the role played by manufacture of quality products within pharmaceutical/ medical industries, an inspection was carried out on the documentation issues for Cordis medical device manufacturing company. What follows below is thus a gap analysis report of the in spection results for the identified company’s documentation issues for the four quarters of the previous year, 2011; and which were categorized into three classes as missing information, open NPR’s and miscellaneous. Missing information During the previous year, 2011, a total of 1589, 1286, 932 and 358 missing information issues were reported for the four quarters of the year respectively. In other words, these quarterly figures represented 38.15%, 30.86%, 22.38% and 8.60% of the total 4165 annual figure, and having average quarterly reported issues of 1041. This vividly depicts that there is a wide range on the number of issues reported quarterly, whereby the highest number of issues is reported during the first quarter, while the least figure is obtained at last quarter of the year. The annual figure of 4165 of missing information issues were as contribution from area of identification, investigations and disposition matters. The difference observed in this may be co ntributed perhaps by several factors including personal ones like education and experience, work environment (volumes of work) among others.Advertising Looking for critical writing on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Miscellaneous For the Miscellaneous cases, it was found that there were 7, 4, 10 and 5 reported issues for the four quarters of year in ascending order. With the sum of 26 issues in this category, 18 of these were reported as overwrites while the rest of the remaining issues were either cross-outs or not assigned matters of NPR’s. Generally, it appears that the resulting differences of each of the individual reported overwrite case for the various quarters are not quite significant. However, violations of overwrite type were at the peak during the third quarter, but minimally experienced problem between the months comprising the second quarter of the year. This is indication on review and audits records such as production batch records and procedures of processes may be affected variably during certain time of the year Open NPRs Focusing on the issue of open NPR’s, quarterly deficiencies were reported as 19, 47, 105 and 177. The open NPR’s problem figures increase from the first quarter to the last one, hence giving an increasing track and trend of the problem. Impact: what impact does the variable have on the product? Following the results obtained from the investigative study of the three variable levels contributing towards poor documentation within the Cordis organization, we have found that much of the essential information need for manufacture and improve the quality of the organization’s products is not made available as required to right parties. On the overall focus of the variables that were investigated for the Cordis company, one identifies that all of the three variables would affect the quality of the company’s pr oducts in one way or another. This mainly includes the information contained or describing the product’s originality, processes and procedures followed in their manufacture which are necessary for authorization for human use, and which affect their legal authorization in marketing distribution in certain regions.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Gap Analysis: Cordis medical device manufacturing company specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

WNMU Admissions (Costs, Scholarships Aid More)

WNMU Admissions (Costs, Scholarships Aid More) Western New Mexico University Description: Established in 1893, Western New Mexico University has a rich history and numerous registered historic buildings. The 83-acre main campus is located in Silver City, New Mexico. The downtown features a range of art galleries, coffee shops and restaurants. The nearest larger city is El Paso, roughly two-and-a-half hours to the southeast. Albuquerque and Phoenix are each over a four-hour drive. Outdoor lovers will love WNMUs location. The town is surrounded by Gila National Forest, a 3.3 million acre area with plenty of opportunities for hiking, biking, fishing, and camping. Western New Mexico University has a diverse student bodyhalf of students are Hispanic, and the school has an official designation as an Hispanic Serving Institution. Students can choose from over 70 fields of study including some online options. Business and social science fields are among the most popular. Academics are supported by a 14 to 1 student / faculty ratio and an average class size of 18. The university g ets high marks for its value, and a students tuition rate is guaranteed for four years. Student life is active, and  WNMU has intramural sports and a long list of student clubs and organizations including a Craft Club, Improv Troupe, and WNMU Roller Derby. On the intercollegiate athletic front, the WNMU Mustangs compete in the NCAA Division II Lone Star Conference  with sports like men’s and women’s golf, cross country, and tennis. The university fields five mens and six womens varsity sports. Will You Get In? Calculate Your Chances of Getting In  with this free tool from Cappex Admissions Data (2016): Western New Mexico University Acceptance Rate: -Western New Mexico University has open admissionsTest Scores 25th / 75th PercentileSAT Critical Reading: - / -SAT Math: - / -SAT Writing: - / -Whats a good SAT score?ACT Composite: - / -ACT English: - / -ACT Math: - / -Whats a good ACT score? Enrollment (2016): Total Enrollment: 3,427  (2,491 undergraduates)Gender Breakdown: 39% Male / 61% Female53% Full-time Costs (2016  - 17): Tuition and Fees: $5,906  (in-state); $13,806 (out-of-state)Books: $1,466  (why so much?)Room and Board: $8,936Other Expenses: $5,080Total Cost: $21,388  (in-state); $29,288 (out-of-state) Western New Mexico University Financial Aid (2015  - 16): Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 96%Percentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 93%Loans: 52%Average Amount of AidGrants: $8,929Loans: $6,734 Academic Programs: Most Popular Majors: Accounting, Business Administration, Criminal Justice, General Studies, Kinesiology, Psychology, Social WorkWhat major is right for you?  Sign up to take the free My Careers and Majors Quiz at Cappex. Transfer, Graduation and Retention Rates: First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 50%4-Year Graduation Rate: 9%6-Year Graduation Rate: 20% Intercollegiate Athletic Programs: Mens Sports:  Football, Golf, Tennis, Track and Field, Basketball, Cross CountryWomens Sports:  Volleyball, Track and Field, Cross Country, Softball, Golf, Basketball Data Source: National Center for Educational Statistics If You Like Western New Mexico University, You May Also Like These Schools: University of New MexicoNew Mexico State UniversityEastern New Mexico UniversityNew Mexico Highlands UniversityNew Mexico TechArizona State UniversityNorthern Arizona UniversityUniversity of ArizonaUniversity of Colorado at Colorado SpringsColorado State University Western New Mexico University Mission Statement: mission statement from  wnmu.edu/admin/president/missionvision.shtml WNMU engages and empowers learners in a multicultural, inclusive, creative, and caring community of teaching, scholarship/research, and service.

Why Nuclear Power Station Is Better than Normal Power Station in Essay

Why Nuclear Power Station Is Better than Normal Power Station in Generating Electricity - Essay Example Introduction: This project is about nuclear energy and how important it is in our life as a source of energy that can be produced in nuclear reactor. Nuclear reactor can produce a high amount of energy which can use to boil water in order to produce a high amount of steam which helps to generate electricity. Nuclear power station is an efficient source of energy that can produce a huge amount of electricity and relatively cheaper than the other source of energy; able to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases which play an important role in changing the environment; and has a high level of safety equipment to monitor and prevent any error or failure. Therefore, relaying on nuclear may change the future of the world and the future of our new generation. Advanced methods are employed to make nuclear power safer and more cost efficient. The advanced ABWR (Advanced boiling water reactor) and PWR (Pressurized water reactor) techniques have made the nuclear power much cost efficient. The a dvanced core cooling techniques made nuclear power safer for the future. Now a day our major problem is the green house gases emissions and to address the problem nuclear power has a better and safe solution. Nuclear power is free from green house gases emissions. ... In comparison, one kilogram of uranium releases almost the same energy produce by 1 million kilogram of coal (Dittmar, 2009). This energy release because the atom in nucleus split into two fragments and the two fragments split into four and then four to eight and thus a chain reaction starts. At every split, a large amount of thermal energy is released, which is used to heat water to generate power. This is all that happens in all nuclear reactors to produce that huge amount of energy. The capital investment that is required in building a nuclear power plant is comparatively higher than other power plants but the operating cost of a nuclear power plant is lower than a conventional coal or gas fired power plants. Secondly, using nuclear energy as an alternative source of energy will reduce the amount that spent in producing electricity by using fossil fuel. The cost of nuclear fuel is comparatively low as compared coal or gas in terms of energy released. However, there is misunderstan ding between the cost of nuclear energy production and the cost of producing nuclear as station that include a high safety level and materials use to control it outcome disposal. The cost of any nuclear power plant is highly dependent on the structure, locality and cooling techniques utilized to remove the unnecessary heat or decay heat. Decay heat or unnecessary heat produced by a nuclear reactor is a big problem and it should be taken care of. Pumping cool water through the nuclear reactor helps remove the decay heat. A structure that could hold a lot of water like a lake should be built before or after constructing a nuclear power plant. If a power plant is near a natural source of water,

Term Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Term Paper - Essay Example Leinberger in his book explains the emerging trend of the established system among Americans, who prefer to create a stable community t based on the adaptations that they have created in the design of the urban system. The Option for Urbanism had been written to highlight the provisions derived from the created system with challenges and opportunities explained for the system. Societal individuals prefer easier measures that develop their physical and emotional conditions positively towards the challenges faced. The explanation is also accorded of the system that has been developed by the government over the recent times towards what had been termed as drivable suburb. With the emphasis placed on reviving the economy and generation of profit, the advancement in the communal policies has declined with developed health hazards and environmental degradation. Leinberger’s book has been written to highlight both advancements and challenges of the witnessed system according the need ed options to regulate the system. Through careful analysis of The Option of Urbanism, the lesson is developed of the provisions needed in generating a successful and sustainable society. The aspect under consideration in Leinberger’s book has been the societal setting within the urban setting. He explains that the trend established had been charged with setting the lifestyle that favored development of the existing resources. Humanity within the urban centers had preferred to attain venues that could be applied in the completion of multiple tasks. Not only had satisfaction been the solution derived from the system, but the challenges had also incorporated the influences on the environment. The variable economic sectors created within the society had been created on the motive to develop the economy. However, the consequences for the creation of the system that sustained the individuals had been created at a dire cost of lowering the health status. The harmful effects that ha d been noticed from the system had been degraded living condition and the environmental threat of carbon gases emission. The differentiated sectors like financial and the real estate community had to be developed following an established pattern to accord a productive venture (Leinberger, 2008). The sustainability of the system had been varied on the financial, social and environmental sector. Leinberger (2008) explained that these systems had been the vital provision to generate the desired measures that created peaceful and healthy relations within the society. The urban system had been based on the development attributes that considered the measures needed to obtain success. Without the regulation of the system created that provided for development structures similar within the entire sixty years of development, the challenge witnessed would be in accommodating the increasing number of individuals. There should be the balance of these entities to establish satisfaction within the member of the society and develop a system that would be flexible to the witnessed changes. The creation and development of the structures within the urban centers should be advanced into the system that considers human mobility as compared to other facilities within the system. The spaces designed within the system had be